The Continuum of Masculinity-Femininity Term Paper

The Continuum of Masculinity-Femininity - Term Paper Example The gene SRY that determines the male gene Y binds to the DNA, and distorts it to form the testes. Sox 9 gene is the one that regulates the expression of the SRY gene. If SRY gene is not regulated by the sox 9 gene, the fetus turns male (Storms, 1979). Without SRY gene, organs of female reproduction would be formed instead of male organs. Research shows that one in a hundred people has intersected characteristics. Not everyone believes that his or her biological sex corresponds to his or her gender identity. These people include transsexuals, transgender people and people who are interred sexed according to storms, (1979). Transsexuals and transgendered persons face certain challenges in the society even as they struggle to accept themselves as they are and acquire new gender roles that are based on each individual’s sex. A person might feel that their gender roles are not in line with their gender identity. This creates a disorder related to gender identity. Gender identity d isorder comes to play when individuals are uncomfortable with their gender anatomy which may lead to them to behave like people of the opposite sex. It is not true that masculinity and femininity are positioned on opposite sides of the continuum as is popular belief. If someone possesses both masculine and feminine traits, it does not mean that they are too feminine or masculine. A person’s position on the femininity and masculinity continuum depends on the report specifying their qualities and behaviors that are gender-linked. The continuum midpoint is called the zero point as noted by Rathus, Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus (2011). A person is placed here if he/she fails to be identified by the gender role, or they breach it. Those identified with sex roles that are strong are placed on either end of the continuum. One factor that has helped me identify my gender is that naturally, I am a male with male sexual organs. However, this may not make me completely female. What I do every day and my behaviors also identify me as a male.

Imaging Informatics ( Agfa- Impax 6 ) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Imaging Informatics ( Agfa- Impax 6 ) - Essay Example PACS software allows for examination of more vivid details, which results in higher levels of diagnosis accuracy and patient treatment outcomes. In addition, the PACS technology can ensure that referring physicians are able to find complete history and study of the concerned medical case, using a web browser, from anywhere. This would permit the physicians working in rural and remote areas to read the images sent over the web, for examining the same, virtually, offline. With such vast advantages and uses of PACS, the technology has now become a part of electronic medical record, while expanding beyond the radiology department- based medical application. This has necessitated the integration of PACS with RIS solutions, while IT vendors offer interchangeability of data, seamlessly, to enable radiologists helping in provision of optimum medical care at faster speed with lesser costs. Accordingly, the integrated RIS/PACS solutions create a single data base to manage image and information workflow of any radiology department. While it is responsible for acquiring, storing and displaying radiology text-based and image information, the integrated technology maintains awareness of all digital and analog information, creating the work-lists and order status information. This way PACS helps in management of all clinical and business processes in an effective manner, while considerably reducing the related paper work.( PACS –Technology Report , 2009 ) As PACS is a technology that integrates the computers, communication networks, servers, work-stations and software to formulate and manage a system for radiological image formation and display as well as producing the relevant image information archive; there are several components that are integrated together by digital networks and communication protocols. The components include data acquisition gateway, which is

Although we need regulation on internet for many reasons, the U.S Essay

Although we need regulation on internet for many reasons, the U.S government should not regulate internet because it could endanger e-business - Essay Example Internet was invented to facilitate the information collection system and communication of the USA military force. However, with the increased use of computer over time and sharp fall in computer prices, Internet made its entry into the households in the 80s and more effectively during 90s. Soon Internet became popular in almost all the developed countries and made its way into the developing countries as well. The 90s witnessed a sharp decrease in computer prices owing to the continuous research and development in the field of Information Technology and efficient, smaller and cheaper computers had been invented during this period. At the same time Internet became more and more available due to spread of optical fiber at a mass level and its price fell due to the emergence of competing organizations in the field of Internet service providers. The situation was perfect for the Internet to spread at the onset of the new millennium and it made an optimum use of that situation to spread even at a much faster rate than before and made a much deeper drive than it had ever made since its inception. The U.S government should not regulate Internet because it could endanger e-business. Firstly, Internet is readily available to anyone and even that at a cheap rate. The ready availability is due to the spread of optical fiber beneath the seawater, which has made possible the continental connectivity and the cheaper price is due to the competitive nature of the Internet service providers’ market. If one service provider asks a little higher price he would surely lose customers, as the customer will get the same service at a cheaper rate. Secondly, Internet is brilliant for getting any information, from weather condition to railway availability. All these can be known by a click of the mouse and comparing to its information providing capability, the

Juvenile Delinquency in Hidalgo County Research Paper

Juvenile Delinquency in Hidalgo County - Research Paper Example The violent crime rate is lower in the MSA where Hidalgo belongs because it is 319.20 compared to the Texas rate of 408.60 and the country rate of 386.9 (FBI, 2012).   In other words, the total crime rate in Hidalgo County is higher than the state, particularly its property crime rate, although it has a lower violent crime rate than the latter. When discussing gang presence in the Hidalgo, the Texas Fusion Center Intelligence and Counterterrorism Division of the Texas Department of Public Safety (2013) offers only a rough sketch of gang activities in the region where Hidalgo is in Texas Gang Threat Assessment 2012.   This report stressed that there are approximately more than 2,500 gangs in Texas and Hidalgo County is in a region where gang activity is highest.  There are several parts of Texas that have the highest concentration, and Hidalgo is one of them. Hidalgo is in Region 3, based on this assessment.   In Region 3, the most notable gangs are Tango Blast (Corpitos, Vall ucos), Texas Syndicate, and Texas Mexican Mafia (Texas Fusion Center Intelligence, 2013, p. 17).   Tango Blast engages in violence and Mexican cartels, Texas Syndicate commits violent crimes, as well as human and drug trafficking, while Texan Mexican Mafia is involved in organized crime, extortion, and distribution of black tar heroin (Texas Fusion Center Intelligence, 2013, p. 10).  To deal with these gangs, the state and county offices use different initiatives to tap the resources and systems of local, state and federal law enforcement and state and federal prosecutors.   In general, they integrate resources across intelligence, police, investigative, and prosecution agencies/individuals.  Ã‚  

Challenges Library Management System Essay Example for Free

Challenges Library Management System Essay n 1981, UNESCO published a study prepared by Jean Lunn1 from Canada, Guidelines for Legal Deposit Legislation. His study is now 30 years old since its publication. Many countries have amended or significantly rewritten their legal deposit laws (Germany, Indonesia, and Norway in 1990; France in 1992, Sweden in 1994, Canada in 1995, South Africa in 1997, Denmark in 1998 and Japan Finland in 2000). Others are in the process of doing so (Australia, India, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland and United Kingdom). The forms of intellectual and artistic expressions have grown in different dimensions. New published media have been developed and electronic publications are now an integral part of many national publishing heritages. UNESCO was under pressure to bring out a revised edition of the Guideline in order to review the impact of it on other countries and to incorporate new forms of publishing, such as, electronic publications. The new revised and updated edition of the Guidelines of Legal 2 Deposit Legislation (2000, UNESCO) by Jules Lariviere is found to be a useful tool. The Indian relevant act, Delivery of Books Act 1954 (rev. 1956 to include newspapers and periodicals) has been under the scanner shortly after it was put into application and over the last five decades the National Library, Kolkata and the three other recipient regional public libraries, Connemara Pubic Library, Chennai, Central Library, Town Hall, Mumbai and Delhi Public Library, Delhi, and especially the publishing world directly involved with it, expressed concern and drew attention of the Government of India, of its limitations and ineffectiveness. The National Library, Federation of Indian Publishers (FIP) and several professional library organizations discussed its drawbacks and recommended revision or specific amendments of the act at various seminars, conferences and other forums. Ministry of Culture, the concerned agency of the government of India, set up several committees to deal with the National Library. The Recommendations of the National Knowledge Commission3 and its Working Group on Libraries (NKC-WGL, 2006) is completely silent on this and other national library related issues. It would be appropriate to draw attention to an article by 3. Challenges in Library Management System (CLMS 2012) Bandopadhyay (2000) former Director of the National Library, is exhaustive enough with a complete set of plan of action for the concerned Ministry to initiate the revision process at the earliest. As a follow up, the Ministry took some steps to obtain the views, of other stakeholders, including academics, library users group and senior library professionals. Based on these suggestions / recommendations a revised draft bill on this issue was prepared that is awaiting final clearance of the Ministry since 2006. Role of Legal Deposit Act: In simple terms Legal Deposit is a statutory obligation which requires that any organization, commercial or public, and any individual producing any type of documentation in multiple copies, be obliged to deposit one or more copies with some recognised national institution/s. It is important to make sure that legal deposit legislation covers all kinds of published material, that is, material generally produced in multiple copies and â€Å"offered to the public regardless of the means of transmission. † Public distribution could mean â€Å"performance† or â€Å"display† e.g. radio or television programme could be considered as â€Å"published† for legal deposit purposes when it has been broadcast. Within the electronic publications environment, it should be noted that a â€Å"one copy item† such as, a database , stored on one server, could be subject to legal deposit requirement since it is made available to the public through a technology enabling the public to read, hear or view the material. 5 (Lariviere ). Most countries rely on a legal instrument of some sort in order to ensure the comprehensiveness of their national deposit collection. In all countries with legal deposit system, â€Å"published material† would naturally include books, periodicals, newspapers, microforms, sheet music, maps, brochures, pamphlets, etc. In some countries audio-visual material (sound recordings, films, videos, etc. ) is also subject to legal deposit and there are several countries where electronic publications are also included into the legislation, but they have done this in different way; some have excluded on-line electronic publications because of the numerous unsolved technical problems related to their acquisition and preservation problems related to ever changing technological scenarios. Legal deposit legislation serves a clear national public policy interest by ensuring comprehensive acquisition, recording, preservation and access of a nations published heritage. The role of a legal deposit system is to ensure the development of a national collection of published material in various formats. It should also support the compilation and publication of national bibliography in order to ensure bibliographic control over a comprehensive deposit collection. In addition, an effective legal deposit legislation guarantees to citizens and researchers within the country and abroad, access to research collection of  the national published material. Countries are developing many different models, but are clearly unable to keep pace with the massive changes and challenges related to the deposit of intangible publications. Department of National Heritage6, UK (1997) brought out a consultative paper on current legal deposit of publication issues based on a questionnaire which identified several pertinent issues and posed a number of specific questions to which sought responses from individuals and organizations. This document could also help Indian group and the government agencies in formulating the revised DB Act. Profile of Indian book publishing Before we deal with Indian Delivery of Books Act let us first look at the present trends in book publishing in India. Over the last four decades a large majority of English language publishing has concentrated in and around the capital, Delhi. The city is also a major centre of Hindi publishing industry. With the rapid growth of higher education from 1960s and the pressure built-up within the faculties due to UGCs policy of publish or perish resulted in the increase of publications of research monograph. India is one of the few countries where 4 4. Invited Lectures theses and dissertations submitted for Ph. D. and other similar higher postgraduate degrees in humanities and social sciences particularly, get published as a routine matter, whereas in science and technology this would be a rare phenomenon. There is no reliable source of annual book publishing data in India or any comprehensive list of Indian publishers in different languages. D. N. Malhotra7 (2010), former President of FIP and an established publisher in English and Hindi claimed of having 15,000 20,000 publishing houses, mostly run by individuals or as single family business. According to Vinutha Mallay8 Senior Editor of Mapin Publishing, India is the sixth largest publishing industry in the world with annual growth of 15-20%; third largest publishers of books in English, around 90,000 to 100,000 books are published annually, there are about 19,000 publishers in the country; in addition sixty per cent of global publishing outsourcing is based in India. This growth trend is noticeable only from the 70s onwards when book trade turnover increased gradually due to numerical growth of educational and research institutions at every level. As we look back a few decades, the demand of English books grew fast in libraries of newly established universities, research institutions and other academic centres. Individual buyers of books constitute only a small percentage. Bulk of the titles was imported from the English speaking countries, mostly from the UK and USA based publishing houses. This book import business is largely handled by a few Delhi based book importers and distributors. To accelerate the book supply process from the shelves and warehouses the importers / distributers devised a practice of sending books on credit to academic staff and libraries, through local vendors or jobbers (newcomers in book trade to supply books on approval basis). They were allowed to take back books â€Å"not selected† within a credit limit of six months only. Within a few years these jobbers turned into legitimate vendors with book stock of their own which could not be returned to the wholesalers within the stipulated six months credit limit. They start bookshops with the dead stock of their own and continue to supply books to the institutions on prevailing terms and conditions. These vendors, having direct contacts with the researchers and faculty members on day to day basis, being the actual selectors in all educational institutions, get offers to publish research monographs of academics. Many of them grabbed these offers on their own terms thereby joining the exclusive club of publishers. We now find several of these vendors are retail bookshop owners, library suppliers and also publishers, all in one. Perhaps it would not be out of place to add a few words of Iain Stevenson9 on the recent trends in British publishing keeping in mind that India is claimed to be the third largest English language publishing country. Since the beginning of this century, there have been strong trends in British publishing in the increase in concentration of publishing and book selling ownership balanced by healthy specialization and the second is an increasing awareness and impact of electronic media and delivery across sectors that have created a large impact across the book trade. In 2004 over 161,000 individual book titles were published in the U.K. as compared to 119,000 in 2001 and over 2. 5 times the number in 1990. Consumers spending on books reach 2436 m. sterling pounds (in 2000 it was 2000 million) out of which 30% was from the export sales. Individual buyers comprised the largest market share, about 70% of total book sale and 20% to academic institutions and corporate bodies. Indian Legal Deposit Legislation or Delivery of Books Act 1954 and its aftermath The act, commonly referred to as DB Act10 was amended in 1956 to include newspapers and serials under its purview. Annual publishing of books in India during 1950s was small 5. Challenges in Library Management System (CLMS 2012) and below 30,000 titles, whereas by 2010 it is claimed to have exceeded 100,000 [estimated figure obtained from FIP in the absence of any official data from any reliable source] with substantial increase in the coverage of subjects, such as, science and technology. In a recent 11 Annual Report of the Ministry of Culture the National Library claimed to have received 29,875 publications under the DB Act which happens to be only 30% of the estimated total publications as indicated by senior executives of the Library in several professional forums. It was also being pointed out in such gatherings that the other three recipient libraries under this Act, in Chennai, Delhi and Mumbai received even less during the same period. It is worth noting that this was claimed to be the highest figure ever reached by the library due to a special drive12Intellectual resource (NACONAL 2006). UNESCO Statistical Yearbook is silent on the number of books published annually or the number of libraries in India over the last several decades, although India is one of the major contributors and active member of this international body. This sad state of affaire obviously reached, and continue to be, due to simple negligence of all concern. In most other countries annual publication figures were being provided by organizations declared as recipient/s under the legal deposit or copyright legislation of the country. There must be several reasons for the Library to reach in such a state and to argue, we guess, the limitations of DB Act cannot be the primary cause of it. Rigid administrative and fiscal rules and regulations adopted by the Library to operate under the guidance of the Ministry, is surely to my mind, a major factor but not the main one. The crux of the matter is National Library never received a large number of recent Indian publications under the DB Act. We do not know who all are claimed to be Indian publishers. A sizable number of them are ignorant of DB Act obligations. It is also a fact that number of one time authorpublishers is also very high (15% 20%) especially in vernacular languages. The National Library together with the Central Reference Library committed to bring out Indian National Bibliography(INB) based on the books received under the DB Act, similar in format of the British National Bibliography (BNB). However, neither the British Library (formerly British Museum Library) nor the Indian National Library is in any obligation under their respective legal deposit acts to bring out national bibliographies of books thus received under their respective legal deposit acts. . Bandhopadhyay13 points out,rules and policy adopted are working smoothly for the British Library but similar regulations unexpectedly, failed to work in our case. One has to keep in mind the fact that default in U. K. is an exception rather than general rule unlike in India. The provision of penalty for default in DB Act of Rs. 50. 00 sounds just notional. Either revise it to a figure e. g. , Rs. 1000. 00 or 4-5 times of the actual market price of single copy, whichever is higher or just make it voluntary, and hope for the best. The reason of suggesting the latter provision is to avoid the highly cumbersome and built-in procedural delay within our legal system. Since 1958 National Library did not take any legal action against one single defaulter till date. In UK and USA penalty clause is not mentioned as the legal deposit provision is covered under the countrys copyright acts. It is because of this factor legal deposit provision is genuinely more effective and acceptable to authors and publishers of these countries. It would be more realistic to suggest that National Library shall receive one copy of every Indian publication and the three other regional repository libraries in Chennai, Delhi and Mumbai shall have the right to claim any current publication in their respective regional languages only, delivered free of cost under the revised provisions of the DB Act. The current practice of demanding four copies of every publication to be delivered free of cost to each of 6. Invited Lectures these four libraries (including National Library) failed to meet our expectations. This is in addition to what publishers have to comply with the demands of different state central libraries under the Press and Book Registration Act of 1867. Moreover, a large volume of these books and other publications, thus received, especially language publications that are not so commonly used in some regions are usually being dumped or just temporarily stored as these are of no use to the library. This is a colossal wastage of national resource. On the other hand it would not be cost effective to make these so to say, unused books (four copies of each) routinely processed, provide costly storage space as well as maintaining them for the posterity in four regional libraries. The National Library shall receive one copy for preservation and access only; create bibliographic records for the benefit of all stakeholders. There are several categories of publications e. g. in English, Hindi, Sanskrit and Urdu (EHSU) languages shall find users in other three regional libraries. Let us accept the real time scenario in terms of availability and accessibility for application of information and communication technologies (ICT) within library systems. Bibliographic data of publications received by the National Library under legal deposit legislation will be accessible to others from INB and National Library catalogue / database online. These three libraries shall buy one copy of all selected books in EHSU languages, from any local vendor / publishers. Additional fund annually spend by three libraries on this account shall be reimbursed from a special annual central government grant. The proposed module is based on the British legal deposit act where the British Library, London receives one copy of every book / publication and the other five libraries (Wales National Library, Aberystwyth, Scottish National Library, Edinburgh, Oxford University, Cambridge University and Trinity College, Dublin) obtain direct from the publishers, one copy of every book of their choice, selected from the weekly list of books received in the British Library under the legal deposit act. We made an attempt to get some estimation of the annual cost of books published under these four (EHSU) common languages from INB and the National library that would give an idea of the total fund required for the three regional libraries under the revised provision of the Act. All the three libraries receive some annual grant from the central government. The revised provision in the act will also bring some savings in terms of time and resources, as lesser number of books are to be dealt with by the libraries. Sooner than later, it  will be a reality (within a decade or so) of making available a digital copy of an Indian publication by the National Library online, that was not originally selected or received earlier to a library or an individual from its own stock within or outside the country. The technology is already in experimental stage at various levels. Slowly and gradually a large part of Indian publications will be brought out in e-format only, which will also change our current perception of borrowing or consulting a book from a conventional library. Till we reach that stage in India and the transitional period of overlap (20 years? ) we shall carry on with both the systems as we are now have both bullock carts as well as a BMW 7e series cars on our roads for transportation. Indian library systems shall take a longer path and time to switch over to reach this goal. Moreover, any change in our library modernization programme shall be fully dependent on application of technological innovations resulting in inevitable 14 acceptance of a never ending process. Thomas Abhram in a recent article expressed, â€Å"ebooks will be hugely cheaper with the removal of paper and inventory costs†¦. All things taken into account, books in print format are not certainly going away ever from circulation. And e-books, from a publishing point of view, are a consummation devoutly to be wished. We in India, specially the National Library are to continue dealing with print copies of books for several decades together with information resources available in e-books and or in any other format. 7 Challenges in Library Management System (CLMS 2012) Table 1: Books in Indian Languages Received in National Library LANGUAGE 2007 08 Assamese Bengali English Gujarati Hindi Kannada Malayalam Marathi Oriya Punjabi Sanskrit Tamil Telugu Urdu Total 97 991 5756 127 2370 687 1500 1400 2661 602 112 3685 248 521 20757 NL/DB Act 2008 09 35 1463 5385 348 1722 600 1200 1351 52 576 287 2526 145 304 15994 337 2189 5530 476 1237 877 866 1341 750 000 111 1186 406 292 15598 300 350 450 830 INB (2010) AVERAGE COST. The figures quoted above (Table-1) under Books received by the National Library under DB Act during 2007-08 and 2008-09 and those listed in INB for 2010 (CRL) were obtained from the respective libraries on personal requests. In a paper presented at the NACONAL 2006 by Mandal Syed Abuzar15 (2006) indicated National Library received about 20,000 books annually during 1990 2002. They claimed the Library received about 30,000 during 2005-06 due to some special drive and about similar number of volumes during 2010-11as recorded in the Annual Report of the Ministry of Culture. Unfortunately we could not get breakdown of figures under each language of 29,875 books received during 2005-06 nor of INB listed figures for 2009 and 2011. The significant gap of Oriya books received during 2007-08 and 2008-09 was due to some special efforts put by the concerned language specialist during 2007. [Note:Average cost of recently published books in English, Hindi, Sanskrit and Urdu (EHSU) languages has been worked out from a sample of books procured by University of Delhi, Central Library, Central Secretariat Library and the U. S. Library of Congress, Book Procurement Centre in Delhi. We made here an estimation of annual additional grant amount to be provided by central government to support the three regional libraries (in Chennai, Delhi and Mumbai) under the proposed revised legal deposit legislation. The National Library shall receive one copy only of every Indian publication free of cost delivered by the publishers, and the three regional public libraries are to purchase one copy of any book (in EHSU languages) selected by a library from open market. The three libraries are entitled, under the law, to receive free of cost, one copy of a book published in respective regional languages. It is estimated that each library shall selectively acquire per year about 30,000 new Indian publications (10,000 EHSU + 20,000 in respective regional languages) out of about 90,000 books published annually. It means, central government shall reimburse annually the cost of 30,000 books in EHSU languages where average cost of a set of four EHSU books is Rs. 2000 or Rs. 60 million (30,000 x2000 = 60,000,000). In addition, another 10m (Rs. 10,000,000) would be required to cover annual subscription cost of EHSU periodicals and newspapers. Thus we reach an estimated figure of Rs. 70m or 7crore (add another 10% 8 Invited Lectures annually for inflation). These figures are being presented to get some idea of the extra cost we propose to pass on to the central government exchequer. ] If this revised guidelines are adopted in our legal deposit act (now under revision) by taking over the extra burden of book fund of the three regional libraries by the central exchequer then we could surely expect of getting better cooperation from the publishing fraternity in fulfilling their responsibilities towards the provisions of the revised act. Group of publishers bringing out EHSU language publications are to supply only TWO free copies, like all other publishers, one to the National Library and the other to Parliament Library. The only sensible expectation of the publishers from the CRL / National Library is to bring out a comprehensive, up to date online INB, listing all currently published titles thus received under the act and provide facilities of easy access to the readers within a reasonable time frame. Under the revised provision of the act, there is a strong opinion that Chennai based Connemara Public Library shall receive one copy free of cost, of every publication in Dravidian languages (e. g. Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil and Telugu). Similarly Central Library, Mumbai shall receive books in all western Indian languages, such as Marathi, Konkani, Gujarati, etc. , and Delhi Public Library shall get publications in Punjabi, Kashmiri, etc. as commonly spoken in the three respective regions. National Library is to receive one copy of all the publications. In addition to the respective regional languages publications these three libraries shall purchase one copy of publications of their choice, in English, Hindi, Sanskrit and Urdu (EHSU), from publishers / local vendors. Total annual cost of this category of publications shall be reimbursed from central exchequer. With the introduction of advanced network technologies, libraries shall be benefitted for not to process (Catalogue / classify highest cost factor) these books as relevant data can be downloaded from INB. The second alternative is to incorporate legal deposit provision within the revised copyright legislation as done in the USA and UK. It is possible to reduce the number of defaulting Indian publishers to bare minimum. Only very recently the National Library claimed to have increased intake of publications under the Act by extensive promotional work through the media and sending direct appeal to publishers that have helped it in bringing more and more publishers within the DB Act net. Secondly, if the total number of copies of each title (an average of seven copies) under both PR and DB Acts could be drastically reduced to minimum two only, there is a hope of getting full support and cooperation of Indian publishers to go by the rule book. Third and the most important factor is to make INB up to date and bring it out at regular frequency (monthly! ) with the target of putting it online within a scheduled time frame. What we need is determination and political will to make the Indias National Library the effective hub of Indian library systems. Similarly, there are several other issues, listed below, which also require attention by both the National Library and appropriate government agencies that shall help in making India proud of its National Library. Central Reference Library (CRL): In 1971 administration of the CRL was separated from the National Library by making it a subordinate office under the Department of Culture. This was an ideal opportunity we missed, for shifting the CRL to Delhi. In the middle of 1970s Central Government created a new wing of the Central Secretariat Library (CSL) and named it as Tulsi Sadan Library to collect and provide access exclusively to all Indian language (excluding English) publications, to commemorate the 400th year of Tulsidasa (of Ramcharitmanas fame). CSL could have been merged with CRL and allowed it to operate from some temporary location till a permanent home could be found or built at the proposed site opposite to the National Museum on 9 Challenges in Library Management System (CLMS 2012) Janpath, originally proposed by Edwin Lutyens. CRL would have been the natural choice of declaring it as the fourth recipient public library in Delhi, under the DBAct (instead of making the Delhi Public Library with reluctance, during the 1970s). Ministry of Culture is now under heavy pressure for shifting the Central Secretariat Library out of Shastri Bhavan complex due to severe space crunch and security issues. It is a fact that CSL has lost its original objective of serving information needs of all central secretariat units. Today all the ministries are having their own libraries with specialized collections to cater their respective information needs. It now serves as a general reading room for Shastri Bhavan employees. Reading for pleasure is not so common with the government employees. Central Secretariat Library is administratively a subordinate office of the Ministry of Culture. A large section of its regular visitors, viz. postgraduate students and research scholars have stopped visiting the library due to overwhelming security checks involved in getting through Shastri Bhavan. Recently several thousand volumes of its rich older collections were being disposed under executive orders to make room for babus of the Ministry. It could have been easier to find a suitable location for CRL (incorporating CSL) in Delhi during 1970s. Attempts were also being made during the 1970s and 1980s to merge the CRL with the National Library but these were also stalled by staff associations of the two libraries. During this period, management of the National Library was weak as a result, library service also suffered considerably. Central government in Delhi continued to be indecisive in taking appropriate steps while local library administration in Kolkata failed to deal with the day to day issues in any effective manner. It was more of a failure of the management both at the operational as well as policy making levels. The government allowed the National Library to drift away in the absence of any suitable action plan in place to overcome the crisis. Nor there was any move or pressure from any other corner library professionals, media or library users group. This long drawn uncertainty and lack of effective management control within the National Library campus directly affected services and administration of Central Reference Library thereby putting publication of INB also on the back burner. Indian National Bibliography (INB): It started in 1958 following the British National Bibliography (BNB) format. To overcome the complexity of multi-script languages it adopted Romanization of all scripts with the descriptive part of each entry in English. This has created problems for many who are not familiar with Roman script or English language. The job of printing INB monthly issues was given exclusively to the Government of India Press in Kolkata that failed to realise, from the beginning, the importance of maintaining the production and delivery schedule. After years of persuasion by CRL the Ministry allowed printing of INB through private press. Cataloguing of every title, received by the National Library under BD Act, is first to be acknowledged by the Library then sent to CRL on record, where it will be catalogued once according to INB practices and then books shall be sent back to the National Library for re-cataloguing according to its own specified rules followed by due processing for storage. This long drawn administrative procedural factors and duplication of cataloguing  process have claimed to be a major cause of delay from the date of receipt of the publication to the time its record is found in INB followed by making it available to readers of National Library This delay factor has also indirectly discouraged publishers to follow the DB Act guidelines strictly on the pretext of not finding INB to be a regular and up to date periodical either as a reliable check list of current Indian publications or a selection tool for libraries and other stakeholders; nor their publications are found in any bibliographic record of the National Library on time. National Library takes its own time, sometime nearly two years, to allow access to the books received under the DB Act. Importance of promotion and marketing of INB did never get much support from the concerned authorities. Adoption of appropriate technologies at 10 Invited Lectures different levels of administration and access to resources has been continuously lagged behind. Most national libraries of the world are having full responsibilities of preserving and allowing access to their collections by providing adequate indexing and other access tools, e.  g. national bibliographies, subject bibliographies, annotated catalogues of special collections, many of these are now accessible online on their respective websites. We must allow the National Library for setting up National Bibliographic Division with full control of bringing out INB and to provide other bibliographic services covering pan-India in appropriate standardized formats, as required from time to time. By taking full advantage of technological advances supported by a group of committed well qualified staff the Library would be able to help in both improving and widening the scope of services to individuals as well as to provide back-up services to a large number of academic and public libraries in and outside the country. For example, the day Indian libraries in general adopt the same processing format for all new titles listed in INB,India can claim to have won half the battle in modernizing our library services and systems. Without going into details one can only highlight the fact of centralized processing initiated and applied in most national libraries which have directly and indirectly helped respective library systems of these countries. We are well aware of the fact that both the CRL and INB are as if, linked with the DB Act by an umbilical cord that needs to be focused and dealt with separately for a drastic revision. Proposals l l Title of the revised act may be â€Å"Delivery of Publications (National Library) Act. Definition of Publications shall include – all printed documents, such as, books, periodicals, serials, newspapers, e-publications including audio books, CD books, DVDs and digital online publications and /or any other reformatted or original document produced for commercial distribution, e. g. microform documents. Only one copy of all publications shall be delivered free of charge, direct to the National Library of India (or at an address specified by the Library). The act shall also make adequate provision for the three regional libraries based in Chennai, Delhi and Mumbai to receive on.

Simone De Beauvoir: Gender and Sex

Simone De Beauvoir: Gender and Sex Simone de Beauvoir’s Insights Towards Gender and Status Is there any wonder that Simone de Beauvoir rejected the idea that gender  has innate characteristics from birth? As a woman philosopher living in a man’s world I believe she fully understood what she was talking about. The writings in her world renowned book ‘The Second Sex’ written in 1947 give us a historical and cultural lesson of what women have had to overcome to exist as women in a man’s world. Men and women are both influenced by their conditioning the main difference is that man has been attributed the leading role. Times are changing and Simone de Beauvoir has played an important role in our attempt to undo the erroneous programming. Today’s leading ladies have proven their capacities at playing the part. Simone de Beauvoir’s example of what a woman that is intelligent can do in life by her straightforward, honest approach may be the stepping stones for other women to fearlessly do the same. As far back as the 10th century ideas of antifeminism have haunted the women of the world. The handful of women that were in the limelight were usually obliterated for witchcraft as in the case of Jeanne D’Arc or publicly ridiculed or at worse martyred. Women as the lesser sex have been depicted as temptresses from Bible days which at the same time undermined their intelligence. This dual image which has conditioned women to see themselves as passive beings who lie in wait for men to save, them or come and love them and their counterparts the devouring temptresses who take what they want and leave the rest behind including their intelligence is what Simone de Beauvoir sees as our conditioning. This conditioning starts at a very early age when there are no apparent differences between baby girls and baby boys. They are both at this early age totally in need of nurturing and physical contact which they thrive upon. This loving care is exactly the same up until a certain moment w hen the baby is weaned. According to Simone De Beauvoir from that point on boys are taught to become little men and they receive less physical contact and affection than their girl counterparts; They are also a product of their conditioning just as we are. This is an important thing to remember throughout this reading. Boys and girls alike are part of their environmental conditioning through family heritage, cultural traditions, religious beliefs and historical beliefs. As children we all have the same attitudes of temper tantrums, pouting, charming our parents then we are in fact the same until our environment gives us another outlook upon ourselves. Little girls quickly learn that they need to be careful. They need to act like little ladies not climbing trees and skinning knees as their brothers are encouraged to do. This myth starts very early with the family attitude about the physical differences between sexes. Boys have an outward expression of their masculinity which turns th em rapidly into having something to be proud of. This expression of self that has, in the eyes of the parents, a value becomes what the boy measures himself to other boys with. It’s a tactile indicator of their manliness and gives them the instinct of measurability. How long their sex is and how far they can urinate. The inevitable presence of their extension gives them a power of object. Women are inwardness. All of their discoveries are inward and therefore left unsaid. You can’t see much of the sex of a little girl so it is not made a fuss over as boy’s sexes are. Girls try to express their transfer towards an object to a doll for example. This treating a doll as herself gives her the idea that the substance is the same and therefore she is someone to dress up to cater to, that has an existence because others make her exist. Later on in life she will eventually become that doll thing that sits home waiting for her husband and children to pick her up and do as they please with her. Just as she idled away her childhood she idles away the hours of her parenthood, or wifehood at home staving off boredom with no particular goals or worlds to conquer. Boys grow up with the idea that they are going somewhere and have something to accomplish and will assume responsibilities along the way. They learn at around 13 yrs. old that the answer may not come out in words but through violence. A girl wills repress her own violence because girls don’t do that sort of thing. This violence turns into neurosis which in part is violence unexpressed which comes back to oneself eventually. Simone De Beauvoir was avant guard when she recognized the fact that women have their own part of violence at that age but we do not allow ourselves to express it. We are simply not encouraged socially, historically or culturally to express it. Where progress has been made is that more and more women are training in martial arts which are a positive way to express their inner violence. What upset our mothers, and depending on what conditioning you were also given, was the pre- established path chosen for us no matter what we would like to become. Once the path was set then fear was quickly to follow. What path? The path that says no matter what education you receive you will end up a wife and mother then grandmother. This is a frightening aspect of the growing girl’s plight. She will not only have to learn to become a woman, a wife, a mother and a grandmother. She can study all that she would like but there is no real asking of her to do so or to assume the responsibilities that this implies. She’ll marry then stop working to have children and her husband’s career will prevail and take on the traditional role of breadwinner. Perhaps today’s economy has obliged young women to be career assertive but maybe not for the right reasons. Career minded because families are not withstanding without two good salaries to support them. The outer exp ression of sexual pride may still be baring the road. The fact that a young woman can be a productive and important member of our society and that she also has her contribution to make does not seem to impress upon girls as it does on boys. There are so many frightening biological events in the life of a young girl who is becoming a woman that possessing her own inward sexuality is a complicated task. Young men can see theirs, be proud of it, and use it where as young girls have to deal with what biologically is imposed upon them. Their menstrual cycles which alter their characters for several days a month is in itself part of the mystery of womanhood. The changes in her body that may lead her to withdrawal because now she is becoming the object so desired by men. The doll has come of age and can now be manoeuvred accordingly. This is a moment in time when many young women become anorexic keeping their bodies at bay and stopping the menstrual cycle as if time would stand still. The onset of an eventual pregnancy, abortion risk, risks during pregnancy, menopause and all the choices that implies has made being a woman probably more complicated than being a man. What is very interesting to remark according to statistics there are a large majority of women that would prefer being men. Men in a very small minority if they had the choice would have preferred being a woman. There is the unfortunate, radical, feminist view of continuously proving that women can be more or better than men by doing the same things and acting the same way.. I find this unfortunate. If we want equality then we should be striving for equal respect and equal rights not superiority and domination which are what has made us suffer from the ages. Women finding ways to be assertive, well-balanced, brilliant, and effective is what can give us our strength in today’s world. It was unthought-of at the time of French sculpt rice Camille Claudel that a woman could surpass the master. Camille Claudel would never have broken through the layers of men to get to where she did in the arts if she hadn’t had the support of her father firstly and Rodin. Once Rodin retracted she lost all prestige and control over her life. There is the great Mexican artist Frida Kahlo who also had the support of her father interestingly enough and that of a great Mexican artist as well. Both fathers in these two examples gave their support to their daughters which were probably what they would have received if they were sons instead of daughters. In the face of talent and genius these men were supportive and able to recognize potential. How many other Sunday morning painters got left by the roadside because they were not recognized in virtue of their talents but because of their gender? What did the world wars teach us about women? It taught us that in the absence of brothers, cousins, fathers, and husbands they were capable of running a country from industry to education the national health Women kept their families fed, clothed, and sheltered during the war. We are not warriors are heart but have the same potential. There are examples in history like Amazons and Jeanne d’Arc of women capable of leading armies and warring. We could have been cultivated as war lords also but weren’t. Women are givers of life and that is probably what gives us the incentive to promote peace culture instead of war. No woman wants to see her sons, daughters, husband, brothers or sisters go off to war and not come back. The peace movement has a majority of women supporters and that seems to go with the fact that life giving is still our realm. The political world has opened up it’s doors to women within the last twenty years. Before that time there was usually a woman behind a great man in the shadows and there to decorate the photographs for the press more than for her opinions. In France there were three woman ministers elected in the late 70’s. This was a turning point. The paradox comes in when women fought in the French resistance showing their bravery and didn’t obtain the right to vote until two years after the war was over. The equality act was also pronounced shortly after women’s right to vote. This maintaining of women in a conditioned status has been painful for us and is now becoming painful to our male counterparts who are seeking the limits of their own identity. Women are now brought up and beginning to think for themselves, what they want out of life, what they are going to do to get what they need. This is a true cultural revolution. If the conditioning has begun to change then women shall become women and know themselves. Thus knowing themselves they will become decision makers, and active citizens not through man’s making but through their own. This fundamental step has been operating since May 1968 even though precursors since ancient times have been trying to change this. Simone de Beauvoir succeeded in starting the league for Women’s Rights and was a militant for family planning. Giving back to women the right to do what they need to do with their own bodies was an essential step in accepting the responsibilities that are incumbent for every human being either man or woman. The big waking up of our society started with her book and has continued to live on inspiring women to take the responsibility for their lives as a person and an equal which gives them a lot more freedom than it did our mothers. The social role was encouraging us look pretty but please don’t say anything. Mediocrity amongst woman rose as her only idea of self was stemming from what others mirrored her. Her husband and her family were her only mirrors and connection with the world. He went out in the world she quietly stayed home or followed in the shadows. If an intelligent woman did express herself she was ridiculed in public and could not be accepted for her thoughts. The Marie Curie’s and other thinkers are a small handful of the potential that women have been suppressing since the beginning of time. Women are beginning to realize that no matter what their conditioning since birth they can change the course of events in their lives. Taking their own responsibility for their own lives and what is to become of them is the next chapter in our evolution. Women are finally starting to be raised to believe in themselves and their capacities. Ask a little girl today what she wants to become later and she might surprise you and answer â€Å"an astronaut, a research worker, an architect â€Å". We are far from the days of Simone de Beauvoir’s struggle to live in a man’s world. I think that men are having trouble adjusting to this change. They are becoming more and more aware of women’s presence in the work field and their contribution as fellow citizens. Their own identity has been questioned and ours is beginning to grow and develop. This cleavage will be difficult to stabilize  since all related gender problems have finally come to the surface, the debate is whether or not women that are raising their children can make the ‘shift’ to raising their sons and daughters alike. The story perhaps begins and ends with women. Are we going to keep attributing to ourselves the role models that went before us? Or are we finally going to break the bondage of what we have been made to think of ourselves? There has come a time when the individual man or woman will begin to raise his consciousness and choose him or herself first. Not in and egotistical way but to ask oneself the question ‘†What do I need for myself right now to be in agreement with myself?† When finally women and men have worked on themselves enough to be able at any moment to ask themselves that question then it is definitely not a question of gender but autonomy. Do women want their autonomy? Is the easy way out or women to continue a mediocre existence to take the easy way out and let this be a man’s world and a state of dependency and submission? Men take their independence and unfortunately women think or have been taught to think theirs is to be earned. Men believe it is their right from the beginning. Women ask permission for it and in most circumstances and it never comes. Leaving behind all the social prejudice and family prejudice and historical and cultural prejudice can only be the choice of women. Simone de Beauvoir showed us that a woman is herself and can dare to be herself if she so chooses. Although this idea will not appeal to some, women are running for presidential office these days and hold important functions within our highest auspices while Simone’s message has probably hit home. Women are accepting to be themselves without asking permission to do so. Men are battling with their own conditioning and their own identity problems due to this conditioning. In order to create a balance it will take time and courage. Women for peace, for children’s rights, for non-vi olence, for equal education and career rights have united all over the world to speak their piece. A beautiful French song that implies women as being men’s future. could hold a lot of truth in these words. Thinking back on the historical events and cultural ideas about gender it must have taken great incentive for a woman like Simone de Beauvoir de openly and honestly explore the femaleness and the contradictions of our times. It is also easy to comprehend why men find it so difficult to understand us when we are on the brink of finding ourselves as people and as women. Perhaps if our own opinion of self changes then the worlds opinion can also evolve. Starting with individual awareness can only lead to universal awareness in time. Simone de Beauvoir in her rejection of gender has put back the sparkle in the eyes of women and helped us overcome the conditioning of the years. References Simone de Beauvoir ‘ Le Deuxieme Sexe’ Galiard, Paris 1947 Nancy Bauer Contributor ‘Simone de Beauvoir Philosophy and Feminism’ Columbia University press N.Y. 2001 Isabelle De Courtivron Contributor ‘ New French Feminism’ An Anthology ED. Elaine Marks ED. Publisher University of Massachusetts press,Amherst ma. 1980 www.lang.soton.ac.uk/students/french/FrenchThought/beauvoir/ Reference to song written and sung by Jean Ferrat ‘La Femme est l’avenir de l’homme’

Analysis Of Collocations, Phraseology And Idioms

Analysis Of Collocations, Phraseology And Idioms In our life we often meet situations when people use idioms and collocations. We can hear when somebody says: something is dead sure or I have to keep a tight rein on Tom. Young people often think what does it mean? or How can we translate it?. People have huge problems in the translation of phraseology. Grammar problem is common, because there are several constructions of grammar poorly understood. Very often it is not clear how they should be represented, or what rules should be used to describe them. I would like to mention that in English one linguistic form can be used to encode of meaning while in Polish form and meaning usually are conditioned by each other. English speakers usually choose lexemes very broad in meaning to encode a message. Idioms, collocations and phraseology very often are used in business language, for example: to launch a campaign. We should know basic collocations, phraseology and idioms if we want to understand foreign languages. It can really help. On the other hand it is very important to study the relation between English and Polish phraseology and their culture. In the first part, I will present typological classification of bilingual dictionaries, theory of bilingual lexicography, function of bilingual dictionaries, target group or users, translation problems between Polish and English language, phraseology, expression, vallency collocation, loose collocation- basic terms, types of collocations. The second part contains a precise description of the dictionary included in my work. The third part has the character of dictionary and consists of a systemized extract of collocations with their English equivalents. Typological classification of bilingual dictionaries A bilingual dictionary or translation dictionary is a specialized dictionary used to translate words or phrases from one language to another. Bilingual dictionaries can be unidirectional, meaning that they list the meanings of words of one language in another, or can be bidirectional, allowing translation to and from both languages.(Al-Kasimi 1983: 10) Bidirectional bilingual dictionaries usually consist of two sections, each listing words and phrases of one language alphabetically along with their translation. In addition to the translation, a bilingual dictionary usually indicates the part of speech, gender, verb type, declension model and other grammatical clues to help a non-native speaker use the word. ( Hartman 1998: 25) Dictionaries can be classified into various types of the basic of different criteria. To begin with we have to differentiate between dictionary proper and dictionary like works. Zgusta (1971) calls these linguistic and non-linguistic dictionaries respectively. The linguistic dictionaries are concerned with the words or lexical units of languages and they are called word books. The non-linguistic dictionaries are not concerned with words but with realia or denotata (thing)) they are called encyclopedias, or thing books. They are similar to dictionaries only in their alphabetical arrangement of words denoting the realia. Anyhow the aspects of the realia which are called encyclopaedic features such as description, photos, diagrams etc., are given in certain types of dictionaries to add to the utility of the dictionary. Classification of linguistic dictionaries has been attempted by a number of scholars such as Shcherba (1940), Sebok (1962), Malkiel (1959); Cornym (1967), Zgusta (1971), Svensen (1993). (Devapala 2004 : 2) Bilingual dictionaries have become a necessary part of our daily economic, intellectual, and cultural activities. A new system of classifying bilingual dictionaries, help language teachers to select the most appropriate dictionaries for their students. In 1934 Mansion noted that bilingual dictionaries are not scientific in their treatment of words, and have not kept pace with progress in philology.(Al-Kasimi 1983 : 85) There are many kinds of dictionaries such as glossary, concordance, vocabulary, word book, index, linguistic atlas, encyclopaedic dictionary. The classification of bilingual dictionaries: (Al-Kasimi 1983:12-13) Dictionaries for the speakers of the source language vs. dictionaries for the speakers of the target language; Dictionaries for production vs. dictionaries for comprehension; Dictionaries of the literary language vs. dictionaries of the spoken language; Dictionaries for the human user vs. dictionaries for machine translation; Historical dictionaries vv. Descriptive dictionaries; Lexical dictionaries vs. encyclopaedic dictionaries; Genaral dictionaries vs. special dictionaries The classification of bilingual dictionaries that are combined with machine translators on the Language Grid. The dictionaries on the Language Grid can be classified into the following three types: (WawrzyÅ„czyk 1996: 8) Global Dictionaries: This type of dictionary is a Web service that provides the standard interface of a bilingual dictionary. Further, such types of dictionaries are registered on the Language Grid. In addition, Global dictionaries are large-sized bilingual dictionaries either specialized for certain domain or general purpose and are shared between the Language Grid Users (e.g., Online Dictionary of Academic Terms); Local Dictionaries: These are also Web services with a standard interface; however they are not registered on the Language Grid. These are large-sized dictionaries specialized for a certain user and are not open to the other Language Grid users. (e.g A Dictionary for NPO Pangaca) Temporal Dictionaries: These dictionaries unlike the other two types, are not Web services and are only accessiblefrom a users application system. These are typically small-sized dictionaries specialized for a certain user and are not open to the other Language Grid users (e.g. Users Dictionary for Language Grid Playground) (Al-Kasimi 1983: 28). A bilingual dictionary can combine a number of the defining features of these contrasts in accordance with the purpose it is intended to serve. 1.2 Theory of bilingual lexicography This part is concerned with selected problems in bilingual lexicography. Lexicography is divided into two related disciplines: Practical lexicography is the art or craft of compiling, writing and editing dictionaries. (Fontenelle 2008: 45) Theoretical lexicography is the scholarly discipline of analyzing and describing the semantic, syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationships within the lexicon (vocabulary) of a language, developing theories of dictionary components and structures linking the data in dictionaries, the needs for information by users in specific types of situation, and how users may best access the data incorporated in printed and electronic dictionaries. (WawrzyÅ„czyk 1996 : 36) This is sometimes referred to as metalexicography. General lexicography focuses on the design, compilation, use and evaluation of general dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that provide a description of the language in general use. Such a dictionary is usually called a general dictionary or LGP dictionary.(Hill 2002: 9) Bilingual lexicography is occasionally given an important place in lexicography. Most lexicographical literature is focused on monolingual dictionaries, and most often monolingual lexicography is considered to be the proper one. (WawrzyÅ„czyk 1996: 42) Practical lexicographic work involves several activities, and the compilation of really crafted dictionaries require careful consideration of all or some of the following aspects: Profiling the intended users (i.e. linguistic and non-linguistic competences) and identifying their needs, Defining the communicative and cognitive functions of the dictionary, Selecting and organizing the components of the dictionary, Choosing the appropriate structures for presenting the data in the dictionary (i.e. frame structure, distribution structure, macro-structure, micro-structure and cross-reference structure), Selecting words and affixes for systematization as entries, Selecting collocations, phrases and examples, Choosing lemma forms for each word or part of word to be lemmatized, Defining words, Organizing definitions, Specifying pronunciations of words, Labeling definitions and pronunciations for register and dialect, where appropriate. (Hartman 1998:29) One important consideration is the status of bilingual lexicography, or the compilation and use of the bilingual dictionary in all its aspects. In spite of a relatively long history of this dictionary type, it is often said to be less developed in a number of respects than its monolingual counterpart, especially in cases where one of the languages involved is not a major language.(WawrzyÅ„czyk 1996: 45) Not all genres of reference works are available in interlingual versions, e.g. LSP, learners and encyclopedic types, although sometimes these challenges produce new subtypes, e.g. semi-bilingual or bilingualised dictionaries like Hornbys (Oxford) Advanced Learners Dictionary English-Chinese, which have been developed by translating existing monolingual dictionaries. 1.3 Functions of bilingual dictionaries Bilingual dictionaries have many functions. They are used for many tasks and by different groups of users: learners, translators, scholars. Bilingual dictionaries are used in order to aquire some knowledge about one or both of the languages, knowledge which is necessary above all for communication. Students need a good bilingual dictionary to help in their reading of simplified materials in the foreign language. A good bilingual dictionary is an indispensable tool for the student in the intermediate stage of foreign language learning. Some scholars argue that bilingual dictionaries are very inadequate and unnatural because they present words out of their natural elements-context, they put together items which hardly ever occur in the same communicative situation. According to A. Hill (2006) the ideal dictionaries are still and will always be, essential not only in a dictionary prepared for pedagogical purposes, but in only other dictionary as well. These five types of information are: the phonemic structure of word, in morphemic structure; the grammatical modification is undergoes, its syntactic habits, and its meanings. (Hill 2006: 20) A good dictionary should be different for foreigner students of the language and for the native speakers. (Al-Kasimi 1983: 55) 1.4 Target groups or users Users belong to different groups such as children, students, teachers, scientists, trainees, technicians etc. Hartman (1195) classifies the needs of the users into two types (Hill 2006:56): Information: It is one of the factors for the users seek to help of a dictionary to check spellings, meaning, synonyms, pronunciation, etymology. Operations: That is, when the user performs tasks as reading, writing and translating.He refers to the dictionary to find words and meanings. From the point of view of types of users and their two types of needs, dictionaries fall into different categories such as dictionaries for children, students, translators, learners, scholars, creatives writes. Categorisation of the dictionaries from the point of view of user, influences the articulation of the work in the collection of material, selection of entries, choice of defining words while constructing the entries etc. Therefore, this is an important factor in dictionary making and the compiler has to clearly decide on the type of the users and their needs. 1.5 Translation problems There are some particular problems in the translation process: problems of ambiguity, problems that originate from structural and lexical differences between languages and multiword units like idioms and collocations. Another problem would be the grammar because there are several constructions of grammar poorly understood, in the sense that it isnt clear how they should be represented, or what rules should be used to describe them. (Schmalstieg 1969: 20) The words that are really hard to translate are frequently the small common words, whose precise meaning depends heavily on context. Besides, some words are untranslatable when one wishes to remain in the same grammatical category. Language problems: (Schmalstieg 1969:45) Idioms terms and neologism, Unsolved acronyms and abbreviations, Proper names of people, organizations, and places, Slang difficult to understand, Respect to punctuation conventions. English speakers usually choose lexemes very broad in meaning to encode a message. In contrast, very broad lexemes do not occur in Polish frequently, i.e. Polish: English: SzyĆ¡ sukienkÄâ„ ¢ make (sew) a dress 1.6 Phraseology and collocations-basic terms Phraseology appeared in the domain of lexicology and undergoes the process of segregating as a separate branch of linguistics. The reason is clear lexicology deals with words and their meanings, whereas phraseology studies such collocations of words (phraseologisms, phraseological units, idioms), where the meaning of the whole collocation is different from the simple sum of literal meanings of the words, comprising a phraseological unit. (Altenberg 1998:17) Phraseological units are (according to Prof. Kunin A.V. 1970) stable word-groups with partially or fully transferred meanings (to kick the bucket, Greek gift, drink till alls blue, drunk as a fiddler (drunk as a lord, as a boiled owl), as mad as a hatter (as a march hare)). (Altenberg 1998: 25) A phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations, and may have an emphatic or intensifyi ng function in a text. (Cowie 2001: 10) A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combinations just sound right to native English speakers, who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and just sound wrong. Look at these examples: Natural English Unnatural English a quick shower a fast shower 1.7 Types of Collocation There are several different types of collocation made from combinations of verb, noun, adjective etc. We can distinguish: petrified collocations, vallency collocations and loose collocations. Petrified collocations function in the utterance as single words. They might be replaced by a single word equivalent or by equivalent collocation to fulfil a semantic function. (M.K 2008, 9) Valency collocatons have a considerable degree of cohesion but their components did not submit to lexicalization. Valency characteristic are for example: Polish English WysunĆ¦Ãƒâ€žÃ¢â‚¬ ¡ Ã…Â ¼Ãƒâ€žÃ¢â‚¬ ¦danie put forward a claim (Ã…Â ¼Ãƒâ€žÃ¢â‚¬ ¦daĆ¡) (claim) Loose collocations are formulated only by the concrete necessity of what the speaker intends to say. There are various possibilities for combinating single words to create a loose collocation.(J.B 1993, 19) A phrase in grammar, a phrase is a group of words functioning as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. For example, the house at the end of the street is a phrase. It acts like a noun. It can further be broken down into two shorter phrases functioning as adjectives: at the end and of the street, a shorter prepositional phrase within the longer prepositional phrase. At the end of the street could be replaced by an adjective such as nearby: the nearby house or even the house nearby. The end of the street could also be replaced by another noun, such as the crossroads to produce the house at the crossroads. Most phrases have a central word defining the type of phrase. This word is called the head of the phrase. Some phrases, however, can be headless. For example, the rich is a noun phrase composed of a determiner and an adjective without a noun. 1.8 Types of phrases Phrases may be classified by the type of head taken by them: Prepositional phrase (PP) with a preposition as head (e.g. in love, over the rainbow). Languages using postpositions instead have postpositional phrases. The two types are sometimes commonly referred to as adpositional phrases(J.B 1993; 14). Noun phrase (NP) with a noun as head (e.g. the black cat, a cat on the mat) Verb phrase (VP) with a verb as head (e.g. eat cheese, jump up and down) Adjectival phrase (AP) with an adjective as head (e.g. full of toys, fraught with guilt) Adverbial phrase (AdvP) with an adverb as head (e.g. very carefully) 2. POLISH ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY 2.1 THE AIM OF THE DICTIONARY A phraseological dictionary is a special type of dictionary in which all entries function as collocation. Collocation is the way in which some words are often used together or a particular combination of words used in this way.(M.K, 2008, 5) The aim of Polish-English Phraseological Dictionary is to provide a broad range of phraseological vocabulary and give guidance on words which can be used with a headword. The source of Polish collocations is primarily Phraseological Dictionary of Polish Language by Skorupka ( S.S 1985;) and Phraseological Dictionary of Polish Language by Anna Ciesielska, Katarzyna MosioÅ‚ek-KÅ‚osiÅ„ska.(A.C 1990) In Polish phraseology there is a variety of expressions typical only of the Polish language. It is necessary to mention that not all English collocation given in my work reflect the exact meaning of the Polish ones.